Сожжение в срубе. Сожжение в срубе
Сожжение в срубе — Википедия (с комментариями)
Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии
Сожже́ние в сру́бе — вид казни, возникший в Русском Царстве в XVI веке, особенно часто применявшийся к старообрядцам в XVII веке, смотрите первую из Двенадцати статей царевны Софьи.
История
Сожжение как способ казни стал довольно часто применяться в Русском Царстве в XVI веке во времена Ивана Грозного. В отличие от Западной Европы, в России приговорённых к сожжению казнили не на кострах, а в срубах, что позволяло избежать превращения подобных казней в массовые зрелища.
Сруб для сожжения представлял собой небольшую конструкцию из брёвен, заполненную паклей и смолой. Возводился специально к моменту казни. После прочтения приговора смертника вталкивали в сруб через дверь. Нередко делался сруб без двери и крыши — конструкция вроде дощатой загородки; в таком случае осуждённого опускали в него сверху. После этого сруб поджигался. Иногда связанного смертника бросали внутрь уже горящего сруба.
В XVII веке в срубах нередко казнили старообрядцев. Таким образом были сожжены протопоп Аввакум с тремя своими сподвижниками (1 (11) апреля 1682 года, Пустозерск), немецкий мистик Квирин Кульман (1689 год, Москва), а также, как утверждается в старообрядческих источниках, активный противник реформ патриарха Никона епископ Павел Коломенский (1656 год)[1].
В XVIII веке оформилась секта, последователи которой почитали гибель посредством самосожжения духовным подвигом и необходимостью. Обычно самосожжение в срубах практиковалось в ожидании репрессивных действий властей. При появлении солдат сектанты запирались в молельном доме и поджигали его, не вступая в переговоры с представителями власти.
Последнее известное в русской истории сожжение произошло в 1770-е годы на Камчатке: в деревянном срубе сожгли колдунью-камчадалку по приказу капитана Тенгинской крепости Шмалева.[2]
Свидетельство Флетчера
Английский посланник Флетчер, проживший в Москве полгода (в 1588—1589 годах), стал свидетелем одной из казней:
…муж и жена… были сожжены в Москве, в маленьком доме, который нарочно для того подожгли. Вина их осталась тайною, но вероятно, что они были наказаны за какую-нибудь религиозную истину, хотя священники и монахи уверили народ, что эти люди были злые и проклятые еретики.[3]
См. также
Напишите отзыв о статье "Сожжение в срубе"
Примечания
- ↑ Белокуров C.А. 1 часть // Сказания о Павле, епископе Коломенском. — Имп. О-во истории и древностей рос. при Моск. ун-те. — Москва, 1905. — С. 15. — 53 с. PDF
- ↑ Записки Штейнгеля В. И. // Общественные движения в России в первую половину XIX века. Т. 1. — СПБ., 1905.
- ↑ Флетчер Д. О государстве Российском // Накануне смуты. — М., 1990. — С. 586.
Ссылки
- [warrax.net/81/shatskiy2.html Е. О. Шацкий. Русская православная церковь и сожжения]
- [bibliotekar.ru/rusVyg/index.htm К 300-летию Выговской старообрядческой пустыни]
- [murders.ru/fire_eto_ogon.html Из пыточной истории России: Сожжения заживо]
Отрывок, характеризующий Сожжение в срубе
Так же зажила рана Наташи. Она думала, что жизнь ее кончена. Но вдруг любовь к матери показала ей, что сущность ее жизни – любовь – еще жива в ней. Проснулась любовь, и проснулась жизнь. Последние дни князя Андрея связали Наташу с княжной Марьей. Новое несчастье еще более сблизило их. Княжна Марья отложила свой отъезд и последние три недели, как за больным ребенком, ухаживала за Наташей. Последние недели, проведенные Наташей в комнате матери, надорвали ее физические силы. Однажды княжна Марья, в середине дня, заметив, что Наташа дрожит в лихорадочном ознобе, увела ее к себе и уложила на своей постели. Наташа легла, но когда княжна Марья, опустив сторы, хотела выйти, Наташа подозвала ее к себе. – Мне не хочется спать. Мари, посиди со мной. – Ты устала – постарайся заснуть. – Нет, нет. Зачем ты увела меня? Она спросит. – Ей гораздо лучше. Она нынче так хорошо говорила, – сказала княжна Марья. Наташа лежала в постели и в полутьме комнаты рассматривала лицо княжны Марьи. «Похожа она на него? – думала Наташа. – Да, похожа и не похожа. Но она особенная, чужая, совсем новая, неизвестная. И она любит меня. Что у ней на душе? Все доброе. Но как? Как она думает? Как она на меня смотрит? Да, она прекрасная». – Маша, – сказала она, робко притянув к себе ее руку. – Маша, ты не думай, что я дурная. Нет? Маша, голубушка. Как я тебя люблю. Будем совсем, совсем друзьями. И Наташа, обнимая, стала целовать руки и лицо княжны Марьи. Княжна Марья стыдилась и радовалась этому выражению чувств Наташи. С этого дня между княжной Марьей и Наташей установилась та страстная и нежная дружба, которая бывает только между женщинами. Они беспрестанно целовались, говорили друг другу нежные слова и большую часть времени проводили вместе. Если одна выходила, то другаябыла беспокойна и спешила присоединиться к ней. Они вдвоем чувствовали большее согласие между собой, чем порознь, каждая сама с собою. Между ними установилось чувство сильнейшее, чем дружба: это было исключительное чувство возможности жизни только в присутствии друг друга. Иногда они молчали целые часы; иногда, уже лежа в постелях, они начинали говорить и говорили до утра. Они говорили большей частию о дальнем прошедшем. Княжна Марья рассказывала про свое детство, про свою мать, про своего отца, про свои мечтания; и Наташа, прежде с спокойным непониманием отворачивавшаяся от этой жизни, преданности, покорности, от поэзии христианского самоотвержения, теперь, чувствуя себя связанной любовью с княжной Марьей, полюбила и прошедшее княжны Марьи и поняла непонятную ей прежде сторону жизни. Она не думала прилагать к своей жизни покорность и самоотвержение, потому что она привыкла искать других радостей, но она поняла и полюбила в другой эту прежде непонятную ей добродетель. Для княжны Марьи, слушавшей рассказы о детстве и первой молодости Наташи, тоже открывалась прежде непонятная сторона жизни, вера в жизнь, в наслаждения жизни. Они всё точно так же никогда не говорили про него с тем, чтобы не нарушать словами, как им казалось, той высоты чувства, которая была в них, а это умолчание о нем делало то, что понемногу, не веря этому, они забывали его. Наташа похудела, побледнела и физически так стала слаба, что все постоянно говорили о ее здоровье, и ей это приятно было. Но иногда на нее неожиданно находил не только страх смерти, но страх болезни, слабости, потери красоты, и невольно она иногда внимательно разглядывала свою голую руку, удивляясь на ее худобу, или заглядывалась по утрам в зеркало на свое вытянувшееся, жалкое, как ей казалось, лицо. Ей казалось, что это так должно быть, и вместе с тем становилось страшно и грустно.wiki-org.ru
Сожжение в срубе — Википедия (с комментариями)
Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии
Сожже́ние в сру́бе — вид казни, возникший в Русском Царстве в XVI веке, особенно часто применявшийся к старообрядцам в XVII веке, смотрите первую из Двенадцати статей царевны Софьи.
История
Сожжение как способ казни стал довольно часто применяться в Русском Царстве в XVI веке во времена Ивана Грозного. В отличие от Западной Европы, в России приговорённых к сожжению казнили не на кострах, а в срубах, что позволяло избежать превращения подобных казней в массовые зрелища.
Сруб для сожжения представлял собой небольшую конструкцию из брёвен, заполненную паклей и смолой. Возводился специально к моменту казни. После прочтения приговора смертника вталкивали в сруб через дверь. Нередко делался сруб без двери и крыши — конструкция вроде дощатой загородки; в таком случае осуждённого опускали в него сверху. После этого сруб поджигался. Иногда связанного смертника бросали внутрь уже горящего сруба.
В XVII веке в срубах нередко казнили старообрядцев. Таким образом были сожжены протопоп Аввакум с тремя своими сподвижниками (1 (11) апреля 1682 года, Пустозерск), немецкий мистик Квирин Кульман (1689 год, Москва), а также, как утверждается в старообрядческих источниках, активный противник реформ патриарха Никона епископ Павел Коломенский (1656 год)[1].
В XVIII веке оформилась секта, последователи которой почитали гибель посредством самосожжения духовным подвигом и необходимостью. Обычно самосожжение в срубах практиковалось в ожидании репрессивных действий властей. При появлении солдат сектанты запирались в молельном доме и поджигали его, не вступая в переговоры с представителями власти.
Последнее известное в русской истории сожжение произошло в 1770-е годы на Камчатке: в деревянном срубе сожгли колдунью-камчадалку по приказу капитана Тенгинской крепости Шмалева.[2]
Свидетельство Флетчера
Английский посланник Флетчер, проживший в Москве полгода (в 1588—1589 годах), стал свидетелем одной из казней:
…муж и жена… были сожжены в Москве, в маленьком доме, который нарочно для того подожгли. Вина их осталась тайною, но вероятно, что они были наказаны за какую-нибудь религиозную истину, хотя священники и монахи уверили народ, что эти люди были злые и проклятые еретики.[3]
См. также
Напишите отзыв о статье "Сожжение в срубе"
Примечания
- ↑ Белокуров C.А. 1 часть // Сказания о Павле, епископе Коломенском. — Имп. О-во истории и древностей рос. при Моск. ун-те. — Москва, 1905. — С. 15. — 53 с. PDF
- ↑ Записки Штейнгеля В. И. // Общественные движения в России в первую половину XIX века. Т. 1. — СПБ., 1905.
- ↑ Флетчер Д. О государстве Российском // Накануне смуты. — М., 1990. — С. 586.
Ссылки
- [http://warrax.net/81/shatskiy2.html Е. О. Шацкий. Русская православная церковь и сожжения]
- [http://bibliotekar.ru/rusVyg/index.htm К 300-летию Выговской старообрядческой пустыни]
- [http://murders.ru/fire_eto_ogon.html Из пыточной истории России: Сожжения заживо]
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Отрывок, характеризующий Сожжение в срубе
Её верная, чистая душа не понимала, КАК могла Земля отдавать на растерзание самого одарённого своего сына?.. Был ли в этой жертве хоть какой-то смысл? Она думала – смысла не было. Привыкшая с малых лет к бесконечной (а иногда и безнадёжной!) борьбе, Магдалина не в состоянии была понять эту абсурдную, дикую жертву!.. Ни умом, ни сердцем не принимала она слепое повиновение судьбе, ни пустую надежду на чьё-то возможное «прозрение»! Эти люди (иудеи) жили в своём обособленном и наглухо закрытом для остальных мире. Их не волновала судьба «чужака». И Мария знала наверняка – они не помогут. Так же, как знала – Радомир погибнет бессмысленно и напрасно. И никто не сможет вернуть его обратно. Даже если захочет. Менять что-либо будет поздно... – Как ты не можешь понять меня? – вдруг, подслушав её печальные мысли, заговорил Радомир. – Если я не попробую разбудить их, они уничтожат грядущее. Помнишь, Отец говорил нам? Я должен помочь им! Или хотя бы уж обязан попытаться. – Скажи, ты ведь так и не понял их, правда ведь? – ласково гладя его руку, тихо прошептала Магдалина. – Так же, как и они не поняли тебя. Как же ты можешь помочь народу, если сам не понимаешь его?!. Они мыслят другими рунами... Да и рунами ли?.. Это другой народ, Радомир! Нам не знакомы их ум и сердце. Как бы ты ни пытался – они не услышат тебя! Им не нужна твоя Вера, так же, как не нужен и ты сам. Оглянись вокруг, Радость моя, – это чужой дом! Твоя земля зовёт тебя! Уходи, Радомир! Но он не хотел мириться с поражением. Он желал доказать себе и другим, что сделал всё, что было в его земных силах. И как бы она ни старалась – Радомира ей было не спасти. И она, к сожалению, это знала... Ночь уже подошла к середине... Старый сад, утонувший в мире запахов и сновидений, уютно молчал, наслаждаясь свежестью и прохладой. Окружающий Радомира и Магдалину мир сладко спал беззаботным сном, не предчувствуя ничего опасного и плохого. И только Магдалине почему-то казалось, что рядом с ней, прямо за её спиной, злорадно посмеиваясь, пребывал кто-то безжалостный и равнодушный... Пребывал Рок... Неумолимый и грозный, Рок мрачно смотрел на хрупкую, нежную, женщину, которую ему всё ещё почему-то никак не удавалось сломить... Никакими бедами, никакой болью. А Магдалина, чтобы от всего этого защититься, изо всех сил цеплялась за свои старые, добрые воспоминания, будто знала, что только они в данный момент могли удержать её воспалённый мозг от полного и невозвратимого «затмения»... В её цепкой памяти всё ещё жили так дорогие ей годы, проведённые с Радомиром... Годы, казалось бы, прожитые так давно!.. Или может быть только вчера?.. Это уже не имело большого значения – ведь завтра его не станет. И вся их светлая жизнь тогда уже по-настоящему станет только воспоминанием.... КАК могла она с этим смириться?! КАК могла она смотреть, опустив руки, когда шёл на гибель единственный для неё на Земле человек?!! – Я хочу показать тебе что-то, Мария, – тихо прошептал Радомир. И засунув руку за пазуху, вынул оттуда... чудо! Его тонкие длинные пальцы насквозь просвечивались ярким пульсирующим изумрудным светом!.. Свет лился всё сильнее, будто живой, заполняя тёмное ночное пространство... Радомир раскрыл ладонь – на ней покоился изумительной красоты зелёный кристалл...o-ili-v.ru
Сожжение в срубе
Сожже́ние в сру́бе — вид казни, возникший в Русском Царстве в XVI веке, особенно часто применявшийся к старообрядцам в XVII веке, смотрите первую из Двенадцати статей царевны Софьи.Содержание
- 1 История
- 2 Свидетельство Флетчера
- 3 См. также
- 4 Примечания
- 5 Ссылки
История
Сожжение как способ казни стал довольно часто применяться в Русском Царстве в XVI веке во времена Ивана Грозного. В отличие от Западной Европы, в России приговорённых к сожжению казнили не на кострах, а в срубах, что позволяло избежать превращения подобных казней в массовые зрелища.
Сруб для сожжения представлял собой небольшую конструкцию из брёвен, заполненную паклей и смолой. Возводился специально к моменту казни. После прочтения приговора смертника вталкивали в сруб через дверь. Нередко делался сруб без двери и крыши — конструкция вроде дощатой загородки; в таком случае осуждённого опускали в него сверху. После этого сруб поджигался. Иногда связанного смертника бросали внутрь уже горящего сруба.
В XVII веке в срубах нередко казнили старообрядцев. Таким образом были сожжены протопоп Аввакум с тремя своими сподвижниками (1 (11) апреля 1682 года, Пустозерск), немецкий мистик Квирин Кульман (1689 год, Москва), а также, как утверждается в старообрядческих источниках, активный противник реформ патриарха Никона епископ Павел Коломенский (1656 год).
В XVIII веке оформилась секта, последователи которой почитали гибель посредством самосожжения духовным подвигом и необходимостью. Обычно самосожжение в срубах практиковалось в ожидании репрессивных действий властей. При появлении солдат сектанты запирались в молельном доме и поджигали его, не вступая в переговоры с представителями власти.
Последнее известное в русской истории сожжение произошло в 1770-е годы на Камчатке: в деревянном срубе сожгли колдунью-камчадалку по приказу капитана Тенгинской крепости Шмалева.
Свидетельство Флетчера
Английский посланник Флетчер, проживший в Москве полгода (в 1588—1589 годах), стал свидетелем одной из казней:
…муж и жена… были сожжены в Москве, в маленьком доме, который нарочно для того подожгли. Вина их осталась тайною, но вероятно, что они были наказаны за какую-нибудь религиозную истину, хотя священники и монахи уверили народ, что эти люди были злые и проклятые еретики.
См. также
Примечания
- ↑ Белокуров C.А. 1 часть // Сказания о Павле, епископе Коломенском. — Имп. О-во истории и древностей рос. при Моск. ун-те. — Москва, 1905. — С. 15. — 53 с. PDF
- ↑ Записки Штейнгеля В. И. // Общественные движения в России в первую половину XIX века. Т. 1. — СПБ., 1905.
- ↑ Флетчер Д. О государстве Российском // Накануне смуты. — М., 1990. — С. 586.
Ссылки
- Е. О. Шацкий. Русская православная церковь и сожжения
- К 300-летию Выговской старообрядческой пустыни
- Из пыточной истории России: Сожжения заживо
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1. Аввакум Петров – Avvakum Petrov was a Russian protopope of the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square who led the opposition to Patriarch Nikons reforms of the Russian Orthodox Church. His autobiography and letters to the tsar, Boyarynya Morozova, and he was born in Grigorovo, in present-day Nizhny Novgorod. Starting in 1652 Nikon, as Patriarch of the Russian Church and these reforms were intended mostly to bring the Russian Church into line with the other Orthodox Churches of Eastern Europe and Middle East. Avvakum and others strongly rejected these changes and they saw them as a corruption of the Russian Church, which they considered to be the true Church of God. The other Churches were more related to Constantinople in their liturgies. Avvakum argued that Constantinople fell to the Turks because of these heretical beliefs, for his opposition to the reforms, Avvakum was repeatedly imprisoned. For the last fourteen years of his life, he was imprisoned in a pit or dugout at Pustozyorsk above the Arctic Circle and he was finally executed by being burned at the stake. The spot where he was burned has been commemorated by a wooden cross. Despite his persecution and death, groups rejecting the liturgical changes persisted and they came to be referred to as Old Believers. Numerous manuscript copies of the text circulated for two centuries before it was first printed in 1861. Life of Avvakum, academic edition with commentary Avvakums letters to the Tzar and Old Believers Parallel text version of Life of Avvakum English and Russian Articles on Avvakum by P. Hunt
2. Смертная казнь – Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
3. Русское царство – From 1551 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km2 per year. After a military victory over Sweden and Poland, he implemented substantial reforms and proclaimed the Russian Empire in 1721. While the oldest endonyms of the Grand Duchy of Moscow used in its documents were Rus and the Russian land, in the 1480s Russian state scribes Ivan Cherny and Mikhail Medovartsev mention Russia under the name Росиа, Medovartsev also mentions the sceptre of Russian lordship. In England of the 16th century, it was both as Russia and Muscovy. In Northern Europe and at the court of the Holy Roman Empire, however, muscovites refute this, saying that their country was originally called Russia. When they are asked what nation they are, they respond Russac, which means Russians, and when they are asked what place they are from, by the 16th century, the Russian ruler had emerged as a powerful, autocratic figure, a Tsar. By assuming that title, the sovereign of Moscow tried to emphasize that he was a ruler or emperor on par with the Byzantine emperor or the Mongol khan. At first, the Byzantine term autokrator expressed only the meaning of an independent ruler. Ivan IV was crowned Tsar and thus was recognized, at least by the Russian Orthodox Church and that concept was to resonate in the self-image of Russians in future centuries. The development of the Tsars autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of Ivan IV, Ivan strengthened the position of the Tsar to an exceptional degree, demonstrating the risks of unrestrained power in the hands of a mentally unstable individual. Although apparently intelligent and energetic, Ivan suffered from breakdowns of paranoia and depression, Ivan IV became Grand Prince of Moscow in 1533 at the age of three. The Shuysky and Belsky factions of the boyars competed for control of the regency until Ivan assumed the throne in 1547, reflecting Moscows new imperial claims, Ivans coronation as Tsar was a ritual modeled after those of the Byzantine emperors. With the continuing assistance of a group of boyars, Ivan began his reign with a series of useful reforms, in the 1550s, he declared a new law code, revamped the military, and reorganized local government. These reforms undoubtedly were intended to strengthen the state in the face of continuous warfare, the key documents prepared by the so-called Select Council of advisors and promulgated during this period are as follows. Muscovy remained a fairly unknown society in Western Europe until Baron Sigismund von Herberstein published his Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii in 1549 and this provided a broad view of what had been a rarely visited and poorly reported state. In the 1630s, the Russian Tsardom was visited by Adam Olearius, whose lively, further information about Russia was circulated by English and Dutch merchants. One of them, Richard Chancellor, sailed to the White Sea in 1553, upon his return to England, the Muscovy Company was formed by himself, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby, and several London merchants. Ivan the Terrible used these merchants to exchange letters with Elizabeth I, despite the domestic turmoil of the 1530s and 1540s, Russia continued to wage wars and to expand
4. XVI век – The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1500 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600. It is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of the West occurred, during the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored the worlds seas and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes. In Europe, the Protestant Reformation gave a blow to the authority of the papacy. European politics became dominated by conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years War being laid towards the end of the century. In Italy, Luca Pacioli published the first work ever on accounting, in United Kingdom, the Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy. Japan was suffering a civil war at the time. Mughal Emperor Akbar extended the power of the Mughal Empire to cover most of the South Asian sub continent and his rule significantly influenced arts, and culture in the region. These events directly challenged the notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle. Polybius The Histories translated into Italian, English, German and French, medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia, is made. It is now kept at The Saint Louis Art Museum,1500, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain was born. 1500, Guru Nanak the beginning and spreading of the 5th largest Religion in the World Sikhism,1500, Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón encounters Brazil but is prevented from claiming it by the Treaty of Tordesillas. 1500, Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal,1500, The Ottoman fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians at the Second Battle of Lepanto. 1501, Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on the statue David,1501, Safavid dynasty reunified Iran and ruled over it until 1736. Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam,1502, First reported African slaves in The New World 1503, Foundation of the Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas, in what is modern Sudan 1503, Spain defeats France at the Battle of Cerignola. Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms,1503, Leonardo da Vinci begins painting the Mona Lisa and completes it three years later. 1503, Nostradamus was born on either December 14, or December 21,1504, A period of drought, with famine in all of Spain. 1504, Death of Isabella I of Castile, Joanna of Castille became the Queen,1505, Zhengde Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty
5. Старообрядчество – Old Believers continue liturgical practices that the Russian Orthodox Church had maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Russian speakers refer to the schism itself as raskol, etymologically indicating a cleaving-apart, in 1652, Patriarch Nikon introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between the practices of the Russian and Greek Orthodox churches. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. In doing so, according to the Old Believers, Nikon acted without consultation with the clergy. Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as Schismatics and they became known as Old Ritualists, a name introduced during the reign of Catherine the Great. They continued to call themselves simply Orthodox Christians, by the middle of the 17th century, Greek and Russian Church officials, including Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches, later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different Greek recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon. The unrevised Muscovite books proved to be older than the current Greek books, which had been revised over the centuries, were newer, and contained innovations. Nikon wanted to have the rite in the Russian tsardom and in majority-ethnic Slavic lands, then part of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Their rite was closer to the Greek than that in the Moscow duchy, Nikon did not want to adopt two different rites in the same church. Supported by Tsar Alexis, Nikon carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms, in 1652, he convened a synod and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian Typikon, Euchologion, and other liturgical books with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have subjected to a comparative analysis. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 rubles in gold and furs for their participation and this council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Moscow seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes. The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the subject people. Those who reacted against the Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the alterations, in addition, changes often were made arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read Христосъ, Nikons assistants substituted Сынъ, another example is that wherever the books read Церковь, Nikon substituted Храмъ and vice versa. The protest was indeed global, the episcopate, the clergy, opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers
6. XVII век – The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania
7. Сожжение – Deliberately causing death through the effects of combustion, or effects of exposure to extreme heat, has a long history as a form of painful capital punishment. The best known type of executions of death by burning is when the condemned is bound to a wooden stake. For example, pouring substances such as molten metal onto a person, as well as enclosing persons within, or attaching them to, immersion in a heated liquid as a form of execution is considered distinct from death by burning, and classified as death by boiling. For burnings at the stake, if the fire was large, if the fire was small, however, the condemned would burn for some time until death from hypovolemia, heatstroke and/or simply the thermal decomposition of vital body parts. The 18th century BC law code promulgated by Babylonian king Hammurabi specifies several crimes in which death by burning was thought appropriate. Looters of houses on fire could be cast into the flames, furthermore, a man who began committing incest with his mother after the death of his father could be ordered by courts to be burned alive. In Ancient Egypt, several incidents of burning alive perceived rebels are attested, for example, Senusret I is said to have rounded up the rebels in campaign, and burnt them as human torches. Under the civil war flaring under Takelot II more than a years later, the Crown Prince Osorkon showed no mercy. On the statute books, at least, women committing adultery might be burned to death, jon Manchip White, however, did not think capital judicial punishments were often carried out, pointing to the fact that the pharaoh had to personally ratify each verdict. Then he was placed on a bed of thorns and burnt alive, whoever sees a veiled prostitute shall seize her. And bring her to the palace entrance and they shall pour hot pitch over her head. For the Neo-Assyrians, mass executions seem to have not only designed to instill terror and to enforce obedience. In Genesis 38, Judah orders Tamar—the widow of his son, tamar saves herself by proving that Judah is himself the father of her child. In the Book of Jubilees, the story is basically told, with some intriguing differences. In Genesis, Judah is exercising his power at a distance, whereas he. One pulled it one way, one the other until he opened his mouth, thereupon one ignites the wick and throws it in his mouth, and it descends to his bowels and sears his bowels. That is, the dies from being fed molten lead. The Mishnah is, however, a fairly late collections of laws, from about the 3rd century AD, and scholars believe it replaced the actual punishment of burning in the old biblical texts
8. Иван Грозный – Ivan IV Vasilyevich, commonly known as Ivan the Terrible or Ivan the Fearsome, was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then Tsar of All the Russias until his death in 1584. The last title was used by all his successors, during his reign, Russia conquered the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan and Sibir, becoming a multiethnic and multicontinental state spanning approximately 4,050,000 km2. Ivan exercised autocratic control over Russias hereditary nobility and developed a bureaucracy to administer his new territories and he transformed Russia from a medieval state into an empire, though at immense cost to its people, and its broader, long-term economy. In one such outburst, he killed his son and heir Ivan Ivanovich and this left his younger son, the pious but politically ineffectual Feodor Ivanovich, to inherit the throne. Ivan was a diplomat, a patron of arts and trade. He was popular among Russias commoners, except possibly the people of Novgorod and surrounding areas, the English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word grozny in Ivans nickname, but this is a somewhat archaic translation. The Russian word grozny reflects the older English usage of terrible as in inspiring fear or terror, dangerous, powerful and it does not convey the more modern connotations of English terrible, such as defective or evil. Vladimir Dal defines grozny specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars, courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars. Ivan was the first son of Vasili III and his wife, Elena Glinskaya. When Ivan was three years old, his father died from an abscess and inflammation on his leg that developed into blood poisoning, Ivan was proclaimed the Grand Prince of Moscow at the request of his father. His mother Elena Glinskaya initially acted as regent, but she died of what many believe to be assassination by poison, the regency then alternated between several feuding boyar families fighting for control. According to his own letters, Ivan, along with his younger brother Yuri, on 16 January 1547, at age sixteen, Ivan was crowned with Monomakhs Cap at the Cathedral of the Dormition. He was the first to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russias, prior to that, rulers of Muscovy were crowned as Grand Princes, although Ivan III the Great, his grandfather, styled himself tsar in his correspondence. Two weeks after his coronation, Ivan married his first wife Anastasia Romanovna, a member of the Romanov family, who became the first Russian tsaritsa. By being crowned Tsar, Ivan was sending a message to the world and to Russia, he was now the one and only ruler of the country. The new title symbolized an assumption of powers equivalent and parallel to those held by former Byzantine Emperor, the political effect was to elevate Ivans position. The new title not only secured the throne, but it also granted Ivan a new dimension of power and he was now a divine leader appointed to enact Gods will, as church texts described Old Testament kings as Tsars and Christ as the Heavenly Tsar. The newly appointed title was passed on from generation to generation
9. Западная Европа – Western Europe, or West Europe, is the region comprising the western part of Europe. Below, some different geographic and geopolitical definitions of the term are outlined, prior to the Roman conquest, a large part of Western Europe had adopted the newly developed La Tène culture. This cultural and linguistic division was reinforced by the later political east-west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two was enhanced during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages by a number of events, the Western Roman Empire collapsed, starting the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, mostly known as the Greek or Byzantine Empire, survived, in East Asia, Western Europe was historically known as taixi in China and taisei in Japan, which literally translates as the Far West. The term Far West became synonymous with Western Europe in China during the Ming dynasty, the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci was one of the first writers in China to use the Far West as an Asian counterpart to the European concept of the Far East. In his writings, Ricci referred to himself as Matteo of the Far West, the term was still in use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Post-war Europe would be divided into two spheres, the West, influenced by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc. With the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain, behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Although some countries were neutral, they were classified according to the nature of their political. This division largely defined the popular perception and understanding of Western Europe, the world changed dramatically with the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989. The Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic, COMECON and the Warsaw Pact were dissolved, and in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Several countries which had part of the Soviet Union regained full independence. Although the term Western Europe was more prominent during the Cold War, it remains much in use, in 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It was further revisited in 1954 at the Paris Conference, when the Western European Union was established and it was declared defunct in 2011, after the Treaty of Lisbon, and the Treaty of Brussels was terminated. When the Western European Union was dissolved, it had 10 member countries, six member countries, five observer countries. The CIA divides Western Europe into two smaller subregions, regional voting blocs were formed in 1961 to encourage voting to various UN bodies from different regional groups. The European Union is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe, some Western and Northern European countries of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein are members of EFTA, though cooperating to varying degree with the European Union
10. Сруб – A log cabin is a dwelling constructed of logs, especially a less finished or architecturally sophisticated structure. Log cabins have an ancient history in Europe, and in America are often associated with first generation home building by settlers, construction with logs was described by Roman architect Vitruvius Pollio in his architectural treatise De Architectura. He noted that in Pontus, dwellings were constructed by laying logs horizontally overtop of each other and filling in the gaps with chips, historically log cabin construction has its roots in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Although their origin is uncertain, the first log structures were probably being built in Northern Europe by the Bronze Age. C. A. Weslager describes Europeans as having. accomplished in building several forms of log housing, having different methods of corner timbering, Log saunas or bathhouses of this type are still found in rural Finland. By stacking tree trunks one on top of another and overlapping the logs at the corners and they developed interlocking corners by notching the logs at the ends, resulting in strong structures that were easier to make weather-tight by inserting moss or other soft material into the joints. As the original coniferous forest extended over the coldest parts of the world, the insulating properties of the solid wood were a great advantage over a timber frame construction covered with animal skins, felt, boards or shingles. Over the decades, increasingly complex joints were developed to ensure more weather tight joints between the logs, but the profiles were still based on the round log. It was also common to replace individual logs damaged by dry rot as necessary, the Wood Museum in Trondheim, Norway, displays fourteen different traditional profiles, but a basic form of log construction was used all over North Europe and Asia and later imported to America. Log construction was especially suited to Scandinavia, where straight, tall tree trunks are readily available, with suitable tools, a log cabin can be erected from scratch in days by a family. As no chemical reaction is involved, such as hardening of mortar, many older towns in Northern Scandinavia have been built exclusively out of log houses, which have been decorated by board paneling and wood cuttings. Today, construction of log cabins as leisure homes is a fully developed industry in Finland. Modern log cabins often feature fiberglass insulation and are sold as prefabricated kits machined in a factory, Log cabins are mostly constructed without the use of nails and thus derive their stability from simple stacking, with only a few dowel joints for reinforcement. This is because a log cabin tends to compress slightly as it settles, nails would soon be out of alignment and torn out. In the present-day United States, settlers may have first constructed log cabins by 1638, historians believe that the first log cabins built in North America were in the Swedish colony of Nya Sverige in the Delaware River and Brandywine River valleys. Many of its colonists were actually Forest Finns, because Finland was a part of Sweden at that time. New Sweden only briefly existed before it became the Dutch colony of New Netherland, the Swedish-Finnish colonists quick and easy construction techniques not only remained, but spread. Later German and Ukrainian immigrants also used this technique, the Scots and Scots-Irish had no tradition of building with logs, but they quickly adopted the method
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